Table 1 The list of covariates used in analyses
Short name | Dimension | Definition | Temporal coverage | Data source | Missing | Median (IQR) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Fully vaccinated | Vaccination coverage | Proportion of the population completing the initial vaccination protocol within six months | 2020–2022 | Our World in Data [22] | 0/156 | 27.3 (11.4–40.0) |
Booster given | Proportion of the population that received a booster dose within six months | 2020–2022 | Our World in Data [22] | 0/156 | 3.9 (0–18.6) | |
Aged 65 + | Demographic characteristics | Proportion of population aged 65 and over | 2017 | UN Population Division [45] | 3/156 | 6.6 (3.5–14.7) |
Gender ratio | Number of males born per 100 females | 2020 | World Development Indicators—World Bank [46] | 0/156 | 105.1 (103.9–105.9) | |
Average years of schooling | Average number of years the population older than 25 participated in formal education | 2017 | Our World in Data [47] | 2/156 | 9.2 (6.3–11.3) | |
GDP per capita | Per capita gross domestic product, a measure of a country's economic output per person | 2018 | World Bank [48] | 4/156 | 13,567.3 (4796.5–28,942.6) | |
Lower respiratory infections | Disease burden | Age-standardised prevalence of lower respiratory infections per 100,000 population | 2019 | Global Burden of Disease Study 2019 [49] | 0/156 | 130.7 (84.2–184.6) |
Upper respiratory infections | Age-standardised prevalence of upper respiratory infections per 100,000 population | 2019 | Global Burden of Disease Study 2019 [49] | 0/156 | 3228 (2774–3712) | |
Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease | Age-standardised prevalence of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease per 100,000 population | 2019 | Global Burden of Disease Study 2019 [49] | 0/156 | 2054.3 (1713.3–2665.0) | |
Cardiovascular diseases | Age-standardised prevalence of cardiovascular diseases per 100,000 population | 2019 | Global Burden of Disease Study 2019 [49] | 0/156 | 6477 (5616–7132) | |
Stroke | Age-standardised prevalence of stroke per 100,000 population | 2019 | Global Burden of Disease Study 2019 [49] | 0/156 | 1233.6 (958.2–1411.3) | |
Cancers | Age-standardised prevalence of cancers per 100,000 population | 2019 | Global Burden of Disease Study 2019 [49] | 0/156 | 6157 (4421–9517) | |
Diabetes | Age-standardised prevalence of diabetes per 100,000 population | 2019 | Global Burden of Disease Study 2019 [49] | 0/156 | 5490 (4243–7292) | |
Chronic kidney disease | Age-standardised prevalence of chronic kidney disease per 100,000 population | 2019 | Global Burden of Disease Study 2019 [49] | 0/156 | 7871 (6384–9957) | |
Hypertension | Prevalence of hypertension among adults aged 30–79 years | 2019 | Global Burden of Disease Study 2019 [49] | 1/156 | 37.3 (31.6–42.1) | |
Mental disorders | Age-standardised prevalence of mental disorders per 100,000 population | 2019 | Global Burden of Disease Study 2019 [49] | 0/156 | 12,651 (11,365–13,971) | |
Noncommunicable diseases | Age-standardised total mortality from noncommunicable diseases per 100,000 population | 2019 | WHO [50] | 0/156 | 90,447 (89,596–91,749) | |
HIV | Age-standardised prevalence of HIV infection per 100,000 population | 2019 | Global Burden of Disease Study 2019 [49] | 0/156 | 176.8 (46.4–589.7) | |
Tuberculosis | Age-standardised prevalence of tuberculosis per 100,000 population | 2019 | Global Burden of Disease Study 2019 [49] | 0/156 | 19,036 (13,148–24,781) | |
Overweight | Behavioural risk factor | Prevalence of overweight among adults, BMI ≥ 25 (age-standardized estimate) (%) | 2016 | WHO [51] | 2/156 | 55.6 (30.9–60.6) |
Low physical activity | Disability-adjusted life years attributed to low physical activity | 2019 | Global Burden of Disease Study 2019 [49] | 0/156 | 188.2 (134.2–330.3) | |
Smoking | Disability-adjusted life years attributed to smoking | 2019 | Global Burden of Disease Study 2019 [49] | 0/156 | 2024.9 (1517.8–2721.2) | |
Dietary risks | Disability-adjusted life years attributed to dietary risks | 2019 | Global Burden of Disease Study 2019 [49] | 0/156 | 2210.2 (1607.3–2950.3) | |
Trees per capita | Environmental risk factor | Number of trees per capita | 2014 | Mapping tree density at a global scale [52] | 0/156 | 191.0 (52.2–695.8) |
PM2.5 | Population-weighted exposure to ambient PM2.5 pollution (μg/m3) is defined as the average level of exposure of a nation's population to concentrations of suspended particles measuring less than 2.5 microns in aerodynamic diameter, which are capable of penetrating deep into the respiratory tract and causing severe health damage | 2017 | Global Burden of Disease Study 2019 [49] | 1/156 | 22.2 (14.5–36.7) | |
Mean temperature | Mean temperature (Celsius) | 1991–2020 | World Bank Climate Change Knowledge Portal [53] | 0/156 | 22.1 (11.3–25.5) | |
Population density | Population density (people per sq. km of land area) | 2020 | World Bank [54] | 1/156 | 81.7 (31.8–160.8) | |
HAQ index | Health service | Healthcare Access and Quality Index | 2018 | GBD 2016 Healthcare Access and Quality Collaborators [32] | 8/156 | 66.8 (41.5–81.0) |
IHR score | Average of 13 International Health Regulations core capacity scores, 1st version of the questionnaire | 2019 | WHO [55] | 0/156 | 66.5 (49.8–83.0) | |
Hospital beds | The number of hospital beds available per 10,000 inhabitants | 2017 | WHO [56] | 3/156 | 20.6 (10.0–36.0) | |
Expenditure | Current health expenditure per capita in US$ | 2019 | WHO [57] | 4/156 | 392.5 (75.2–1407.3) | |
Hospitals | Total density of hospitals per 100,000 population | 2013 | WHO [58] | 49/156 | 1.0 (0.5–1.8) | |
Trust the national government | Trust | Trust in the national government of the country | 2020 | Wellcome Global Monitor Survey [59] | 55/156 | 52.5 (43.0–69.5) |
Trust journalists | Trust in journalists in this country | 2020 | Wellcome Global Monitor Survey [59] | 51/156 | 55.2 (47.4–64.8) | |
Trust science | Trust in science | 2020 | Wellcome Global Monitor Survey [59] | 50/156 | 80.5 (70.0–88.8) |