Table 1 Data sources used in this study

International Database from the U.S. Census Bureau

Database of population by age and sex (and demographic characteristics) for over 200 countries and areas, with subnational breakdown

Age and sex distribution of the population in the Gaza Strip

Widely used by multiple agencies and researchers; employs well-established tools for demographic analysis

Data sources and adjustments for the Gaza Strip are not fully documented. Lack of recent input data (last census in 2017)

Population estimates from the Palestinian Central Bureau of Statistics (PCBS)

Mid-year population estimates and projections for each Governorate in Palestine from 1997 to 2026

Total population for the Gaza Strip from 1997 to 2023

Based on rigorous demographic techniques and local expertise, combining census data, vital registration and household surveys. Widely used by international organizations and development partners

Trends until 2017 based on successive censuses, but more recent extrapolations less precise due to the incompleteness of birth and death registration

Multiple Indicator Cluster Surveys (2000, 2010, 2014 and 2019–2020)

Multi-stage cluster sample surveys carried out by the PCBS with the technical and financial support of UNICEF to collect data on indicators related to the health, education, and well-being of women and children.

Under-five mortality rates extracted from birth histories in the microdata or from tabulations, age-specific fertility rates in reports

Standardized sampling techniques and questionnaires, extensive pre-tests, high response rate

Survey implementation and sample representativeness possibly affected by the recurrent conflicts

Other country-specific surveys

1995 and 2004 Demographic Surveys, 2006 Palestinian Family Health Survey

Under-five mortality rates and age-specific fertility rates in published reports

Representative at the regional level, high response rate

Less standardized than the MICS surveys

Number of deaths reported by the Palestinian MoH

Conflict-related fatalities documented by the Palestinian MoH based on hospital reports in Gaza

Total number of deaths due to the war from October 7h to December 31, 2023 (21,822), and detailed list of 13,101 fatalities with age and sex information

Historically considered as accurate in previous conflicts, and consistent with other sources of mortality reporting in the first months of the recent conflict [19]

Possible underreporting of deaths due to challenges in mortality verification, such as bodies trapped under rubble or infrastructure damages [4]

Child mortality database from the UN Inter-Agency Group for Child Mortality Estimation

Database of globally standardized estimates of neonatal, infant and under-five mortality rates

Sex-specific estimates of under-five mortality in the State of Palestine from 1997 to 2021

Based on a comprehensive analysis of surveys, censuses and vital registration data, with adjustments for biases in data series and quantification of uncertainty [28]

Possible biases due to sampling and non-sampling errors. Trends for recent years (2016–2021) in the State of Palestine based on extrapolation from past surveys and censuses